Before moving to Nakuru as a teenager, he lived in a small town at the coast. 4. 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. Cheeseman et al., Decentralisation in Kenya, 3. )percent of population: 29% (2021 est. HRW, Death and Disappearances, 16; Lind et al., Killing a Mosquito, 14. Nairobi Development and the Somali Question in Kenya, c. 191517. )geothermal: 46.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est. See Balaton-Chrimes, Counting as Citizens.. 96. Box 606 Village Market, 00621 Nairobimailing address: 8900 Nairobi Place, Washington, DC 20521-8900telephone: [254] (20) 363-6000FAX: [254] (20) 363-6157email address and website: kenya_acs@state.govhttps://ke.usembassy.gov/, three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large Maasai warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center; black symbolizes the majority population, red the blood shed in the struggle for freedom, green stands for natural wealth, and white for peace; the shield and crossed spears symbolize the defense of freedom, lion; national colors: black, red, green, white, name: "Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu" (Oh God of All Creation)lyrics/music: Graham HYSLOP, Thomas KALUME, Peter KIBUKOSYA, Washington OMONDI, and George W. SENOGA-ZAKE/traditional, adapted by Graham HYSLOP, Thomas KALUME, Peter KIBUKOSYA, Washington OMONDI, and George W. SENOGA-ZAKEnote: adopted 1963; based on a traditional Kenyan folk song, total World Heritage Sites: 7 (4 cultural, 3 natural)selected World Heritage Site locales: Lake Turkana National Parks (n); Mount Kenya National Park (n); Lamu Old Town (c); Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests (c); Fort Jesus, Mombasa (c); Kenya Lake System in the Great Rift Valley (n); Thimlich Ohinga Archaeological Site (c), fast growing, third largest Sub-Saharan economy; strong agriculture and emerging services and tourism industries; current account deficit and high debt; broadband and mobile-money platform investments; surging inflation due to oil and food hikes; new investor-friendly incentives; environmentally fragile economy, $251.431 billion (2021 est. The adjusted numbers published later are still considered dubious by many.Footnote53 Weitzberg has shown how problematic census results were already in colonial times.Footnote54 For nomadic populations, underreporting was observed frequently, as the census logic is linked to a sedentary lifestyle. Ceuppens and Geschiere, Autochthony: Local Or Global.. 62. ), total: 26.94 deaths/1,000 live birthsmale: 29.94 deaths/1,000 live birthsfemale: 23.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2023 est. If you are coming from a very different background, its difficult to match the same level. Lind et al., Killing a Mosquito, 15. Secondly, there are urbanized Somalis whose ancestors settled in the colonial towns. In the following, I will discuss three further citizen-making instruments, which have particularly influenced the position of Kenyan Somalis since the post-election violence of 2007/8: the census of 2009, the elections of 2013, and the securitization of politics since 2013. Both solutions are characterized by instability and insecurity. #KenyaInvestmentHub Pride of Africa . Trade centers such as Mombasa have existed along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coastlines, known as the Land of Zanj, since at least the 2nd century. Similar harrowing testimony -- dismissed as rebel propaganda by the Ethiopian government -- was repeated by various Ogaden refugees who have trickled recently into different parts of Kenya's . These developments, however, are overshadowed by the securitization discourse in the Kenyan public sphere. )other alcohols: 0.03 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. Yet devolution also led to new power struggles. )imports: 277 million kWh (2019 est. Their presence also transformed the urban retail sector, which changed in the 1990s due to Somali traders and the establishment of Somali shopping centres.Footnote38 With this visible presence of Somalis in the economic and political sphere, anti-Somali sentiments have grown stronger, culminating in fears that Somalis are taking over KenyaFootnote39 and that Kenya is colonized by refugees.Footnote40 These fears are not only strong among the Christian population, but also among Muslims, whose communities experienced changed power relations due to the immigration of Somalis to the cities. )wind: 10.7% of total installed capacity (2020 est. 65. 105. ), electrification - total population: 85% (2019)electrification - urban areas: 99% (2019)electrification - rural areas: 79% (2019), installed generating capacity: 3.304 million kW (2020 est. Aminas mother tries to support the family by running a textile shop in one of the Somali shopping centres, but money is always scarce. Those elected in 2013 included a considerable number of Kenyan Somalis, some assuming important positions in parliament and government. 2005 - PAGE 173, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Speaker of the National Assembly of Kenya, Neustadt International Prize for Literature, "2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics", "Somalia: Minorities and indigenous peoples", "Clanship and Contract in Northern Somaliland", "Somalia Maps - Perry-Castaeda Map Collection - UT Library Online", http://www.doollo.com/mainpage/sayidmaxamed/xasanowhubqaadaye.htm, "Collective Punishment: War Crimes and crimes against Humanity in the Ogaden area of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ogaden_(clan)&oldid=1150490853, Articles needing cleanup from August 2022, Articles with bare URLs for citations from August 2022, All articles with bare URLs for citations, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from August 2022, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Articles needing additional references from May 2019, All articles needing additional references, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2022, "Related ethnic groups" needing confirmation, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 18 April 2023, at 13:56. 76. )agricultural: 3.23 billion cubic meters (2020 est. Daily Nation, Kenya Vows to Appeal Verdict Blocking Dadaab Camp Closure, 9 February 2017. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/High-Court-cancels-closure-of-Dabaab/1056-3806030-7enmgdz/index.html; Daily Nation, Weve to Shut Dadaab for Security, Uhuru Kenyatta Tells UN, 8 March 2017. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/-Dadaab-Uhuru-Kenyatta-UN-Antonio-Guterres/1056-3841890-2qvff6z/index.html. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Almost 40% of Kenyans are under the age of 15 as of 2020 because of sustained high fertility, early marriage and childbearing, and an unmet need for family planning. )exports: 0 metric tons (2020 est. Lochery discusses citizenship as being graduated.Footnote5 Using the example of the screening exercise of 1989, when all Kenyan Somalis had to get registered, she demonstrates how institutions negotiate and produce citizenship, resulting in graduated access to rights and protection. Ethnicity is a highly relevant category for political discussions and practices in Kenya, not only during elections, but also, for example, for the allocation of positions in the public sector. The practices around the issuance of identity papers, the discrimination through vetting processes, as well as the forgery of papers, led to hopes that the introduction of biometric databases could make the registration and recognition process more transparent. The possibilities the new Constitution concedes are slowly finding their ways into laws and thereafter into practice. ), lowest 10%: 1.8%highest 10%: 37.8% (2005), 3.42% of GDP (2021 est. 55. )arable land: 9.8% (2018 est. )proven reserves: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. 86. The question for Kenyan Somalis is not, therefore, if they belong to Kenya, but how. Horn of Africa. He now lives there with a Kikuyu woman and their young daughter. See also Menkhaus, Conflict Assessment, 94 and 110. ), production: 0 metric tons (2020 est. 74. In 2013, the elections fostered a co-optation of the Kenyan Somali population; at the same time, they were the focus of a securitization discourse, which in turn resulted in another alienation of the Somali population of Kenya. This means: at an individual level, an Ogaden from there might feel the urge or need or might be compelled . ), English (official), Kiswahili (official), numerous indigenous languagesmajor-language sample(s): The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information. Both the increased visibility of Somali politicians in Kenya, even in areas with a non-Somali majority population, and the growth of the Kenyan Somali population, according to the 2009 census, have intensified anxieties about Somalis taking over Kenya. Elliott, Planning, Property and Plots, 512. Formula Narratives and the Making of Social Stratification and Inequality, The Ogaden and the Fragility of Somali Segmentary Nationalism, Killing a Mosquito with a Hammer: Al-Shabaab Violence and State Security Responses in Kenya, Between a Protracted and a Crisis Situation: Policy Responses to Somali Refugees in Kenya, Rendering Difference Visible: The Kenyan State and its Somali Citizens, Soil, Work, Civilisation, and Citizenship in Kenya, Autochthony and Family: The Politics of Kinship in White Kenyan Bids to Belong. Abyssinia of eastern Africa. In this paper, I show that the position of Somalis as ambiguous citizens is not new, but goes back at least to the independence era, if not earlier. Created in 1994, 3 it has an official population of 4.5 million, 4 predominantly ethnic Somalis, Ethiopia's third largest nationality (around 6.2 per cent), and "roughly one-third of the widely . They share this cleavage with other Kenyan Muslims, especially coastal Arabs and Swahili. . 78. Anderson, Remembering Wagalla, 660. Examples are Aden Duale, who became the Majority Leader of the National Assembly, Amina Mohammed Jibril, Cabinet Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and Adan Mohammed, Cabinet Secretary for Industrialization. In these cases, however, the main difference is also created by the context of socialization. )nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est. Tabea Scharrer http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5640-116X. ), water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; water shortage and degraded water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; flooding; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching, party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Marine Dumping-London Protocol, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whalingsigned, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements, particulate matter emissions: 25.85 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est. In contrast to the above-mentioned groups, however, their ambiguousness has a more severe impact. )investment in fixed capital: 18.9% (2017 est. What can be seen from the material presented in this article is that citizenship for Kenyan Somalis is ambiguous in multiple ways: they are treated as not fitting racially and culturally (which is partly due to their own separation), they are seen as not really wanting to belong (on the grounds of the shifta war and terrorism), as being an economic and political threat, and as not bound enough to Kenya due to their cross-border ties. With access to education, healthcare, and technology, Kenya is poised for exponential growth. Schlee, Territorializing Ethnicity.. Interview with Tusmo, Mombasa, August 2017. Although 80% of Kenya is Christian, its Muslim populationwhich accounts for about 9-10% of the populationis largely concentrated on its eastern coast as well as on the border with Somalia. However, fellow Kenyans at times treat him essentially as (ethnic) Somali. My thanks go to James Carrier, David OKane, John Eidson and Keren Weitzberg for their fruitful comments and to Fatma A. Hassan for her help during fieldwork in Kenya. Although some Kenyan Somalis are part of the socio-economic and political elite of Kenya, they remain trapped in the position of ambiguous citizens, not part of the nation, but also not outside it. The vision of a unified Kenya gained importance after the violence that followed the elections of 2007. 3099067 ), definition: age 15 and over can read and writetotal population: 81.5%male: 85%female: 78.2% (2018), total: 13.8%male: 12.8%female: 14.9% (2021 est. But counting ethnic affiliation also created opportunities for the negotiation of belonging to Kenya. The region has an overall low population density and is home to Somali-speaking nomadic pastoralists. The heterogeneous Somali population in Kenya can roughly be categorized into four groups. )from coal and metallurgical coke: 1.25 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. See Balaton-Chrimes, Counting as Citizen.. In the colonial classification, urbanized alien Somalis neither counted as European, nor as truly Asian or as clearly African, but as something in between, not fitting the categories. 28 Apr 2023 12:38:55 The only exception from this pattern in Nakuru was a Muslim youth group in which Amina was participating: its all-Somali members, who had met in school, came from Somalia as well as from Kenya (and here from the urban areas as well as from the northeastern part of the country). )permanent pasture: 37.4% (2018 est. Sometimes the status of insider is almost impossible to reach. )3.09% of GDP (2020 est. note: data are in current year dollars$9.709 billion (2020 est.) When applying the population growth of Kenya (3.2%), a conservative approach ignoring the high number in children in many Somali families, to the census figures from 1962 (about 270,000 counted as Somali), one should have expected to count about 640,000 people. Due to the years of war and negligence by the Ethiopian government, the quality of life in the Ogaden region has deteriorated. The term Somali is used as an umbrella term, applied to a very heterogeneous population. The majority of ethnic Somalis lived in the eastern half of the Northern Frontier District (NFD),Footnote11 a semi-arid region governed as a closed district by the British, keeping its mainly pastoral inhabitants away from the southern part of the colony.Footnote12 Outside of the Northern Frontier District ethnic Somalis, mainly from British Somaliland, were living in the newly developed towns. Abdullahis parents and siblings identify as Muslim and as Somali in contrast to him. )exports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. ), fossil fuels: 8.3% of total installed capacity (2020 est. Not only are they singled out by the police because of their physical appearance, but when walking along the street people whisper terms like warya,Footnote85 strengthening feelings of not-quite belonging. )female: 2.7% (2020 est. The Dir, Daarood, Isaaq, and Hawiye, which together make up the Samaal clans, constitute roughly 75 percent of the population. The most credible attempt at talks to end decades of armed conflict in Ogaden may soon . Meanwhile, the situation in neighbouring Somalia worsened, starting with the Ogaden war (1977-1978). Carrier and Kochore, Navigating Ethnicity, 135. )imports: 822,000 metric tons (2020 est. Kenyan Somalis, however, likewise reinforce notions of being different when calling their neighbours Africans.Footnote86 This can be read as a colonial legacy, the struggle of urbanized Somalis to be treated like Asians, but it can also be interpreted as a racial marker.Footnote87, Lonsdale noted that the slogan for national unity under Kibaki, Kenya: A Working Nation, also divided the population: Since some work is thought to be morally superior to others some Kenyans are more Kenyan than others.Footnote88 According to him the definition of Kenyanness is linked to idioms of connection to land evolving from the long-standing competition between farming and herding, between working and controling the land. 30. Population and demographic of Mandera County: Garissa counry is 620,000 whereas Wajeer county is 660,000. On average, around 7 people live in each house; access to drinking water is very limited (barely 38% of the population). P. Leftie and J. Otieno, How North Eastern Figures Went Wrong, Daily Nation, 1 September 2010. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/How-North-Eastern-figures-went-wrong-/1056-1001530-1d3tow/index.html. When looking at those other groups Asians, Whites, Nubians or Arabs two main dimensions along which Kenyanness is constructed come into focus: a racial dimension and a cultural dimension. Even though Kenyan Somalis have been treated as ambiguous citizens since independence, the question for many of them is not so much if they belong to Kenya, but rather how. Theoretical Notes on Gray Cities: The Coming of Urban Apartheid? Differences in the way Kenyan Somalis respond to the alternating incorporation into and alienation from society can be found within the very same family. Register a free Taylor & Francis Online account today to boost your research and gain these benefits: Ambiguous citizens: Kenyan Somalis and the question of belonging, Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Department Integration and Conflict, Halle (Saale), Germany, Accidental Citizens: Etherealizing Securitized Identities of Somalis in Kenya; Contesting Representation, Identity and Belonging, Marginal Actors? )note: data are in 2017 dollars, 7.52% (2021 est. Yuval-Davis, Intersectionality, Citizenship, 563. ), degree of risk: very high (2023)food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fevervectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and Rift Valley feverwater contact diseases: schistosomiasisanimal contact diseases: rabies, total: 1.68 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. Ogden is a city located in Weber County Utah.It is also the county seat of Weber County.With a 2023 population of 86,942, it is the 8th largest city in Utah and the 399th largest city in the United States. 2. 65 In 1948 and 1962 enumeration in Northern Province was not done by household because of sparse population and logistical difficulties. Concerning Somali shopping centres see Scharrer and Carrier, Giving Informality Room.. )refined petroleum consumption: 116,400 bbl/day (2019 est. note: data are in current year dollars$17.717 billion (2020 est.) The ambiguousness of citizenship for Kenyan Somalis was complicated further in the 1990s, with the increasing number of Somalian refugees in Kenya.Footnote29 While this number officially includes only those registered as refugees, many more Somalians live outside the camps in the northeastern region as well as in Kenyan urban centres.Footnote30 From the early 1990s onwards, anti-refugee sentiments were aimed at Somalians. )from consumed natural gas: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. Menkaus, Conflict Assessment, 3839. On the one hand Kenyan Somalis are in a particularly vulnerable position as they are under threat of arrest and deportation, on the other hand they are perceived as overwhelming in numbers and as more dangerous to the status quo due to their greater visibility in the economic and political sphere. )$9.116 billion (31 December 2019 est. Even the existence of Somali heroes, as seen in the Westgate Mall AttackFootnote100 or initiatives against that image (#KenyaImNotATerrorist)Footnote101 do not seem to change this picture. While the issuance of identity papers is the states main instrument for making citizens, that state has further tools for placing people inside or outside the category of citizens. The establishment of counties, provided for in the new Constitution as an outcome of the post-electoral violence of 20072008, aimed at decentralizing power.Footnote57 Thereby the right of communities to manage their own affairs and to further their development was recognized.Footnote58 Minorities cautiously welcomed devolution, hoping for more control. Who this term refers to, and if it means insider or outsider, depends on the circumstances.Footnote109 The diverse images of Somalis in Kenya, resulting from different historical trajectories, are aggregated in a meta-image of the ambiguous citizen. When adding all categories of Somali in the 1989 census, their number stood at 421,340. )wine: 0.04 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est. Interview with Ibrahim, Nairobi, September 2010. The British labelled Somalis coming from British Somaliland and Aden the Alien Somali,Footnote13 a term later frequently used to describe all urbanized Somalis, excluding them from the general definition of native.Footnote14 This categorization as non-native not only resulted from their intermediary status in the socio-economic hierarchy due to their service to the colonial state,Footnote15 but also from their own attempts to be treated as Asians, set apart from the African population.Footnote16, After independence, the Kenyan state continued to treat Somalis as not quite belonging to the state. Talking from the current perspective an old man in Nakuru spoke about the early 1960s: In July [1960] Somalia was declared independent, in October I went there. )$234.438 billion (2019 est. 71. 73. Balaton-Chrimes, Counting as Citizens, 215. 23. Kenya's young and growing population presents a huge market for investors. Interviews with Amina, 2010, and with Ijaabo, Mombasa, August 2016. In addition, archival sources about the history of urban Somali presence were gathered. For example, R. Warah, Census data on Kenyan Asians raises more questions than answers, Daily Nation, 5 September 2010, http://www.nation.co.ke/oped/Opinion/Census-data-on-Kenyan-Asians-raises-more-questions-than-answers-/440808-1004396-v1yqaw/index.html; See also Jerven, Poor Numbers, 73. Therefore, the 2013 election campaigns brought a considerable electoral focusto the north.Footnote62 The prospect of economic development arising from Kenyas Vision 2030, with its special dedication to the north, increased the relevance of the elections further. )industrial: 300 million cubic meters (2020 est. The situation of an Ogaden born in Kenya is very different from the one of an Ogaden born in Kismayo from one born in Region 5. Kenya Population Census 1969, 1; Kenya Population Census 1979, 8. Almost 40% of Kenyans are under the age of 15 as of 2020 because of sustained high fertility, early marriage and childbearing, and an unmet need for family planning. 33. The Ogaden contains oil and gas fields, but development has been hampered by instability in the region. Ogden is currently growing at a rate of 0.08% annually and its population has increased by 0.25% since the most recent census, which recorded a population of 86,726 in 2020. )investment in inventories: -1% (2017 est. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 624; Anderson, Remembering Wagalla, 662. )$4,600 (2019 est. During the 2011 drought in the northern regions of the country, for instance, there was a wave of solidarity with people donating to campaigns such as Kenyans for Kenya. )note: data are in 2017 dollars, 6.11% (2021 est. Her mother grew up in Garissa in northeastern Kenya. Kenyan Somalis seem to be ambiguous in both of them. As a result, this area remained separated from the rest of Kenya and was ruled under emergency regulations. 38. )tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est. ), $4,700 (2021 est. Lewis, The Ogaden, 578; But cf. [8] In particular, the ONLF operates in Ogaden areas. ), 5.325 million NAIROBI (capital), 1.440 million Mombassa (2023), at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female0-14 years: 1.01 male(s)/female15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/femaletotal population: 1 male(s)/female (2023 est. Similar living experiences can also result from internal migration, often for educational reasons or because of work. Weitzberg, The Unaccountable Census.. Register to receive personalised research and resources by email. These fears were at the core of two discussions I was present at, taking place during the Coast Regional Peace Summit, Mombasa, 2011 and among Kenyan participants of a Conference on Refugees and Forced Migrants, Kilifi, 2016. ), total petroleum production: 0 bbl/day (2021 est. McIntosh argues that one way for white Kenyans to claim Kenyanness is to appeal to a cosmopolitan ideal, a civic nationalism, in which all groups invested in the nation are equally welcome.Footnote113 As it was shown, the citizen-making instruments of the state in the last decade discussed with taking the example of the census and the elections reflect in content and usage the imagination of Kenya as a nation of diversity. )5.4% (2020 est. UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Fact Sheet, Kenya (01-31 December 2017). A similar trend could be observed from the total Kenyan panel, in which the national identification over the ethnic one rose from about 40% (2005/2006) to about 54% (2016/2018). Throughout the paper the term Somali is used when referring to the ethnic category, the term Somalian as a national category denotes people coming from Somalia. Both of them, as good Muslims, did not go out to bars, but instead played video games in the evening and enjoyed Somali music. We are one Kenya: Representations of the Nation, Leadership, and de-Ethnicized Identity on Reality TV, The Isaq Somali Diaspora and Poll-Tax Agitation in Kenya, 193641, The Unaccountable Census: Colonial Enumeration and Its Implications for the Somali People of Kenya, A New Model Village. The establishment of Jubbaland in 2013 cemented the return of Ogaden political relevance to Somalia. It also evokes the oscillating political treatment of Kenyan Somalis by the state, and the manifold ways in which Kenyan Somalis react to it. )transmission/distribution losses: 2.724 billion kWh (2019 est. ), fresh water lake(s): Lake Victoria (shared with Tanzania and Uganda) - 62,940 sq kmsalt water lake(s): Lake Turkana (shared with Ethiopia) - 6,400 sq km, Atlantic Ocean drainage: (Mediterranean Sea) Nile (3,254,853 sq km), population heavily concentrated in the west along the shore of Lake Victoria; other areas of high density include the capital of Nairobi, and in the southeast along the Indian Ocean coast as shown in this population distribution map, recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; the Barrier (1,032 m) last erupted in 1921; South Island is the only other historically active volcano, the Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa; glaciers are found on Mount Kenya, Africa's second highest peak; unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value; Lake Victoria, the world's largest tropical lake and the second largest fresh water lake, is shared among three countries: Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Kikuyu 17.1%, Luhya 14.3%, Kalenjin 13.4%, Luo 10.7%, Kamba 9.8%, Somali 5.8%, Kisii 5.7%, Mijikenda 5.2%, Meru 4.2%, Maasai 2.5%, Turkana 2.1%,non-Kenyan 1%, other 8.2% (2019 est. 31. )proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est. All Somalis were required to register and to prove their belonging, consolidating their position as ambiguous citizens.Footnote17 The various counterinsurgency measures taken by the Kenyan state had severe economic impacts and to this day, the northeastern region remains one of the least developed, producing a dual exclusion of both the region and its people,Footnote18 with the regular internal checkpoint in Garissa still resembling a border station to Kenya for many Somalis.Footnote19, Outside of the northeastern region, urbanized Kenyan Somalis also felt marginalized: they were not only held responsible for the secessionist movement, but also lost the socio-economic status they had occupied in pre-independence society. )$8.297 billion (31 December 2020 est. See Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency. 5. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 617. 8. Even though other communities, such as Maasai, Kalenjin, or Luo likewise spread over national borders, Kenyan Somali Members of Parliament lamented repeatedly that Kenya treats its Somali citizens differently than those other groups.Footnote90 The notion of pastoralism can, however, also serve as a binding element, as the elections 2013 showed. It is Kenya that does not want Somalis in Kenya.Footnote10, Even in colonial times, the Somali population of British East Africa was treated differently from other inhabitants. In the third part of the paper, I discuss how the two dimensions important for the notion of Kenyanness race and cultural citizenship play out for the Somali citizens of the state.

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